Indoor insects are considered “pests” because they can be nuisances and a source or symptom of health risks. Detecting pests is the first step to know a problem exists. Classifying them is essential to prescribe and implement an appropriate treatment. Doing both quickly can prevent infestations.
Personally encountering pests is one way to both detect and classify. People may readily see or feel ants, flies, gnats and mosquitoes because these insects make little effort to conceal their presence. People may also see cockroaches, fleas and bedbugs, but more effort or chance is required because they are nocturnal, very small and/or hide out-of-sight. Seeing and feeling insects, in general, can invoke visceral reactions, rational or not. Being bitten or stung can also result in physical reactions. Thus, people generally prefer to not encounter pests at all, especially in their living spaces.
Traps rarely eradicate pests, but can reduce encounters between pests and humans. Conventional traps tend to require significant human effort to inspect, detect and classify incarcerated insects or remains thereof. Traps also do not provide any indication when pests enter them; significant time may elapse between inspections, allowing infestations to propagate.
Conventional traps can also be obtrusive and dangerous. For example, they may occupy significant space in plain sight, produce odors, release toxins, and ensnare children or pets.
Conventional traps can also be expensive. Many traps on the market cost several tens of dollars and still require human labor to frequently inspect them. Some traps even require chemicals and dyes to lure and/or illuminate trace indications of pests; this compounds the associated labor requirements.
For several reasons, bedbugs are of particular concern to homeowners as well as hospitality and transportation industries. Considered more of a nuisance than a health hazard, bedbugs lurk in dark crevices of living spaces. Bedbugs are small, flat, wingless insects with six legs that, like mosquitoes, fleas, mites and biting gnats, feed exclusively on blood from animals and humans. They range in color from nearly white to brown, and they turn rust-red after feeding. The common bedbug is usually less than 0.2 inches (5 mm) in length, making it easy to miss with the naked eye. Bedbugs are so named because they mostly hide in bedding and mattresses.
Bedbugs are commonly found in hotels, hostels, shelters, apartment complexes, cruise ships, buses, airplanes, trains, and waiting rooms, all of which are places where multiple people may pass through and/or stay for brief periods of time. Bedbugs are nocturnal and can hide in beds, floors, furniture, wood and paper trash during the day. Because bedbugs hide in small crevices, they can stow away in or on luggage, pets, furniture, clothing, boxes and other objects. Bedbugs may relocate from their original luggage homes to adjacent luggage in cargo holds, causing further spread. Bedbugs are found worldwide, but are most common in developing countries. And, not surprisingly, bedbugs are most noticed in areas of greater human concentration.
In the U.S., it is estimated that there are approximately 500-million dwelling spaces that could potentially harbor bedbugs. These include approximately 10 million hotel/motel beds, 40 million dorm rooms and apartments, and 350 million other residential rooms. Other spaces where infestations might occur include rental rooms in vacation properties, ships, ferries, buses, and passenger train cars.
Bedbugs have an average life span of 6 to 12 months, but can survive in certain environments for up to four years. They only feed on blood, through all life stages, and require one or more blood feedings to progress to each of several life stages. Bedbugs can go weeks without feeding.
The table below indicates the lengths and habits of bedbugs at various life stages.
TABLE 1StageLengthCommentsEgg1mmEggs hatch within 6-10 days, andhatchlings immediately seek blood meal1st Instar1.5mmTakes a blood meal, then molts2nd Instar2mmTakes a blood meal, then molts3rd Instar2.5mmTakes a blood meal, then molts4th Instar3mmTakes a blood meal, then molts5th Instar4.5mmTakes a blood meal, then moltsAdult5.5mmTakes repeated blood meals overseveral weeksAdult Male5.5-6.5mmIncreases length by ~20% whenengorged, mates continuouslyAdult Female5.5-6.5mmFemales lay up to 5 eggs per daycontinuously
Peak bedbug biting activity is usually just before dawn. They can feed without waking their unwitting hosts. Meals are procured in as little as three minutes, after which the bedbugs are engorged and detach from their host, crawling into a nearby hiding place to digest their meal. Hosts typically do not feel their bites because bedbugs inject a numbing agent into the body, along with an anticoagulant to keep blood flowing as they extract it. The first sign of bedbug bites may be itchy, red bumps on the skin, usually on the more readily-accessible upper torso arms or shoulders. Bedbugs tend to leave straight rows of bites. Bedbug bites do not usually require treatment, although secondary infections can occur. Some people do have allergic reactions to bedbug bites, requiring medical attention.
Hosts passively lure bedbugs and other blood-consuming pests in multiple ways, but research has shown that the most effective attractants are heat and carbon dioxide (CO2). Most conventional traps are passive, and rely on bedbugs falling into inescapable spaces or sticking to adhesive surfaces that interrupt their traffic patterns between perceived hosts and hiding places. Some traps are more active, however, and attempt to emulate host-like heat and CO2 generation; they may also include pheromones, kairomones, and various other chemicals. Unfortunately, traps like these can have drawbacks. First, generating or releasing CO2 elevates the toxicity inside a living space. Second, because humans can generate upwards of 40 liters of CO2 each hour, bait chambers can be very bulky and rely on unstable or offensive chemical reactions to emulate human-level signatures. Third, refreshing the bait(s) can be expensive due the cost of the chemicals and labor. Fourth, such chemicals can be offensive and potentially toxic to humans and pets.
Quality hoteliers strive to provide guests with positive experiences. Steps are regularly taken to ensure that living spaces are hygienic, neat, affordable, and inoffensive. Hoteliers are very concerned about guest perceptions, in part because consumers rely heavily on reviews, which social media have made more voluminous and available. Hoteliers are also concerned about liability. And, of course, hoteliers are concerned about costs, whether from lost revenues or pest search-and-eradicate steps. Notably, some eradication steps require the destruction and removal of expensive furniture, fixtures and equipment. Note that false reports of bedbugs may cause expensive eradication steps to be taken unnecessarily.
Many consumers associate bedbugs and other pests with a lack of cleanliness. In truth, spaces may be “clean” per strict hygienic standards yet still host bedbugs, because bedbugs can be ushered into spaces by even the cleanest of hosts. While conventional “cleanliness” may not prevent bedbugs, an argument could be made that the presence of any pests constitutes a lack of cleanliness. This argument becomes more compelling when consumers realize that bedbugs discharge blood-based waste, lay up to five eggs per-day/per-female, deposit exoskeletons when they molt, and leave carcasses when they die.
Some consumers may also fear that bedbugs and other pests could facilitate communicable diseases, despite CDC claims to the contrary. After all, these pests extract, digest and eliminate trace elements of blood. In fact, a tell-tale sign that bedbugs reside in a space can be found in the bloodstains they leave, especially along the seams of mattresses. Bedbugs also leave dark spots of blood-based waste where they might crawl into hiding places on furniture, walls, and floors. Given the gravity of certain blood-borne diseases, even if the blood is digested and dried, it is easy to understand this fear.
Hoteliers understand and respect these concerns and the costly ramifications of a bad guest experience. Litigation is expensive. Medical bills are expensive. Lost loyalty is expensive. A tarnished reputation is expensive. And bedbug eradication is expensive. To the latter point, infestations can cost hoteliers hundreds and thousands of dollars per occurrence, with multiple occurrences possible annually.
To minimize the impact of litigation, hoteliers may wish to know not only whether pests of any kind are present but also which pests are present. Should any claims be made by guests, hoteliers will want to have verifiable information about which insects, if any, could have bothered the guests. One cannot necessarily assume bites are from bedbugs, or that the bites were even suffered while the guests were in the hotel. Bites can be hard to identify, even for doctors. It is best to collect and identify pests to identify the possible source of the bites.
Bedbug infestations can occur in a matter of weeks. While insecticides are available, they cannot be applied to areas that come in direct contact with skin, due to their toxicity. Also, modern bedbug populations are highly resistant to the insecticides used for their control. Freezing and very high temperatures can kill bedbugs without toxicity, but are infeasible as a preventative measure for living spaces. Similarly, Sterifab® kills bedbugs on contact, but does not leave residues and therefore cannot be used for preventative treatment.